きょうはひとつ、完了形のしくみを考えましょう。ぼくが「見える英文法(ジャパンタイムズ)」や「CNN English Express, 2015年9月号(朝日出版)」の特集で書いた考えかた、視点とできごとの時点のふたつの時点を用いたDTP理論(Dual Time Point Theory「2時点式・複合的時間表現理論」)を使ってお話ししたいと思います(注1)。大げさな名前をつけましたが、べつにむずかしい言語学の理論ではありません。それどころか、自分ではたいへんシンプルで自然な考えかただと思っています。
knowや所有のhaveなどの「状態動詞」や進行形はデフォでは非有界の述語です(フランス語やイタリア語の「半過去形」も非有界的と言えるでしょう)。動作動詞に関しては、「1回限りの瞬間的動作」をあらわす動詞は有界的です。いっぽうstudyとかwalkとかの継続動作動詞は原形では非有界的な感じですが、過去形だと有界的にとらえられるほうがふつうでしょう。おなじみかけでもI had lunchなどはI ate lunchとおなじですから有界的です。動詞の内在的アスペクト (Aktionsart) だけではどちらかきめられないことが多いです。時制や文法的アスペクト(完了/進行)、目的語や主語、副詞句なども考えないといけません。たとえばwriteは非有界的でも、write a letter というと有界的になるという話は「見える英文法」にも書きました。またhave a headacheは単独ではどちらかというと非有界的[状態的]でしょうが、つぎの文のように:
I arrived at the station. Isuddenlyhad a headache.
「わたしは駅に着いた。突然頭が痛くなった」
と言うとhad a headacheは始点については有界的になり,時間(場面)はちょっとすすんだ感じがしますね。
Emma: David, thank you for taking time out of your hectic schedule for us today.
David: Thank you, Emma. It's a pleasure and an honor to talk to you.
Emma: I was wondering if you could tell us a little bit about your works?
David: Well, I think my works could be roughly divided into two categories. One is a series of symbolic works, like this small piece here, called Memento. I suppose it is pretty easy to make some sense out of it if you look at it closely enough.
Emma: Let’s see, at first sight, it just looks like an ordinary hourglass, except the upper section is painted all black, so you can’t see the sand inside. Does this mean ... you never know how much time you have left?
David: Exactly. It reminds you that, no matter how young you are now, you don’t have the slightest idea how many more years you have to live. That’s exactly what it’s all about. An hourglass is a traditional memento mori in European art, but I gave it a little twist. Simple, isn’t it?
Emma: Yeah, I guess so, with the help of the title, Memento. Somehow I feel this image is far scarier than other more obvious symbols of death, such as a skull.
David: Right. Interestingly, subtle symbols are sometimes more effective, because they make you think. You have to figure them out yourself, and you won’t forget the answers you’ve found for yourself.
Emma: You mentioned two categories. What is the other?
David: Well, you could call it surrealistic. The Landscape series is in this category.
Emma: Is there a common theme to the Landscape series?
David: No, I wouldn’t say I work to a fixed theme all the time. When I’m working on a symbolic painting, I usually have a specific title in mind, and I feel I’m in complete control of myself and the effect of the imagery I’m creating, but when I’m painting a surrealistic tableau, I often don’t know myself what objects I might want to throw in, or why I might want to do so. The whole process is more or less spontaneous, automatic, so it’s unpredictable. The title is always the last thing I come up with. Sometimes I’m at a loss what to call the end product. That’s why I often give up trying to think of an appropriate title and end up just calling it “Landscape 15”, for example.
Emma: So you aren’t sure yourself what your surrealistic paintings are all about?
David: No. Not in most cases. I really don't want to know why I paint particular objects. Too much analysis can kill creativity. The sense of mystery is an essential element in this kind of painting.
Emma: Lastly, what do you think it takes to be a good surrealist painter?
David: To be a surrealist painter of the kind I admire, like Dali, Magritte, or Giger, you have to be a superb realist first. It might sound like a paradox, but it isn’t really. Remember that Dali painted an exquisitely realistic work he titled The Basket of Bread when he was young.
Surrealism is not anti-realism. Surrealists don’t try to deny or destroy reality. They try to create another reality, another world. No matter how crazy or weird it looks, it’s O.K. as long as it’s visually convincing. In order to make your world look convincing, you have to have the basic skills to paint realistically. If you don’t, it might be pretty hard for you to be a surrealist no matter how wild your imagination is. Maybe you should try to be something else, say, an abstractionist or expressionist.
*This interview is fictional. The painter doesn't exist.
*lindisima は形容詞 lindo 「きれいな,かわいい (pretty)」の絶対最上級 lindisimo の女性形。amapola が女性名詞なので,それにあわせています。スペイン語では名詞に男性と女性があり,男性名詞はたいてい o でおわり,女性名詞はたいてい a でおわります。形容詞もそれにあわせて語尾を o や a にかえます。じゃまくさいと思われるかもしれませんが,それによってデフォで韻をふんでいるみたいになり,きれいにきこえるのです。
*solaはここではaloneの意味で副詞的につかわれています。soloは副詞的なときもsoloがさす名詞や代名詞に性と数をあわせます。これはフランス語の seul でもおなじです。スペイン語では動詞の形で主語の人称と数がわかるので,主語代名詞がはぶかれることが多いのですが,結果的にsoloの形で主語の性がわかることもあります。
Chris: Harry, what’s wrong? Why are you staring at me that way? Is there something on my face?
Harry: No, I just felt you were about to say, “Are you hungry? How about having some tacos?”
Chris: Wow, are you a mind reader or something? I am hungry for tacos now.
Harry: I’m a telepath, you know. Sometimes my ability to read people's minds scares me.
Chris: You don’t need telepathy to know what I'm thinking. It’s about lunchtime now and you know how much I love tacos. You may not realize it, but I don’t believe in telepathy, psychokinesis, or anything like that. Those things are nothing but an unscientific bunch of bullshit.
Harry: Just because modern science can’t explain a phenomenon, that doesn’t necessarily mean it doesn’t exist. It doesn’t follow that it’s something spiritual either. I’m not sure about psychokinesis, but telepathy is definitely real. Do you know that some scientists are attempting to explain it as a result of quantum entanglement?
Chris: I don’t know much about quantum physics, but I know for a fact that telepathy is fake. So-called mind reading has nothing to do with supernatural or paranormal powers. Mind readers just have highly-developed powers of observation.
Harry: But sometimes I can receive messages from someone far away. Do you remember Fred, who lived on Hove Street? I hadn’t seen or heard from him in ages. Last Sunday his image suddenly popped up in my mind. Soon after that, I got a call from him! Things like that happen to me all the time.
Chris: Well, I think it's just a coincidence. A coincidence that's very easy to explain. First of all, it isn't surprising that you thought of Fred. After all, he used to be one of your best friends. You had probably thought of him many times before but immediately forgot about it. Last Sunday you thought of him, which isn't unusual, and then he happened to call you, so you remembered that you'd just been thinking of him. People only notice things that seem surprising to them. Fortunetellers depend on that. They make several predictions, and you only notice the one that proves right. You ignore all the wrong ones.
Harry: All right, There is no point arguing on and on like this. Seeing is believing. Why don’t we do a simple experiment?
Chris: What kind of experiment? You know there’s no way you can trick me into believing anything. I’m a born skeptic.
Harry: I know that. OK, first I’ll think of a scene from a famous film. I’ll try to visualize it as clearly as possible and send the image to you, and you try to receive it. Now close your eyes, try to concentrate and describe what you see.
Chris: It’ll be a waste of time, but all right, if you insist, let’s do it. Hey, what are you writing?
Harry: It’s just in case you don’t believe me when I tell you what I was trying to transmit to you. OK, keep your eyes shut. I’m sending it to you now.
Chris: Mmm..., sorry, I don’t see anything at all.
Harry: Come on, Chris, be patient. Keep concentrating.
Chris: I am, but I still don't see anything. Wait! I think I hear a melody or something. I think it’s ... it sounds like... the theme to Star Wars.
Harry: Wow, that’s amazing! To tell you the truth, I tried to visualize a scene from Star Warsat first, but it was too hard, so I played the theme in my head instead. Look, (showing the piece of paper he wrote on) here's the proof.
Chris: Quite an impressive trick. Now tell me how you did it.
This is not entirely fiction. It is based on what really happened to me, especially the last part. I'm a staunch atheist and skeptic. I'm a big fan of Richard Dawkins and T J Kirk, too. Still, I have to admit that the part about sending a melody by telepathy is true to what I experienced a long time ago, except that it was not the theme to Star Wars that I tried to send to my partner, but the theme to Astro Boy.